“Why do you want to know about that?” the tour guide asked, his tone laced with suspicion. The voice, which had been warm and welcoming moments before, turned ice cold. I had called him to ask about the Ashtime, a third-gender role that was openly acknowledged by the Maale people of southern Ethiopia.
I was taken aback. Perhaps I had expected enthusiasm, even pride, in sharing a piece of this rich cultural heritage. Instead, there was a long, uncomfortable, pregnant pause on the other end of the line. As I explained my interest, he quickly redirected the conversation to safer topics, such as the region’s famous and delicious coffee and the beautiful landscapes. He actively avoided any mention of the Ashtime. It was clear that even over the phone, the subject was too sensitive and too controversial to be openly discussed.
Ethiopia, traditionally known for its conservatism and rigid gender roles, once harbored a culture that defied expectations. The Maale people openly acknowledged a third gender role known as the Ashtime. However, finding information about them was challenging. It wasn’t until I began researching for this article on gender neutrality that I discovered their existence.
This interaction mirrored the many conversations I’ve had around gender in Ethiopia, where even those who consider themselves modern often shy away from discussing anything that deviates from the norm, let alone gender neutrality. It’s a reminder of the strong societal barriers that continue to exist around these topics.
Yet, the Ashtime existed
The Maale people, an ethnic group residing in southwestern Ethiopia, historically cultivated a unique cultural framework that accommodated a fluid understanding of gender. Central to their worldview was the Ashtime, a third gender role distinct from male (atinke) and female (laali). Also referred to as “wobo,” meaning “crooked,” the Ashtime historically occupied a marginalized position within Maale society. This term described a gender role filled by people assigned male at birth who identified as women.
The Ashtime’s role was intricately linked to the societal structure. High-ranking officials known as Kati were revered and were believed that they would contaminated by any female presence. Women were considered impure and, therefore, not allowed to enter the king’s court. To protect their purity, the Ashtime—who were assigned male at birth—were chosen to serve in the royal court, performing domestic tasks and acting as intermediaries between the male-dominated world and the prohibited female sphere. This practice, however, ceased in the 1960s, and today the term denotes a transgender identity. Concurrently, the restrictions on women’s access to the king’s court shifted, allowing only virgin girls entry, albeit with limitations during menstruation.
The Lost Gender
While the role of Ashtime – and it seems the notion of making space for gender diversity – has become extinct in Ethiopia, the challenges faced by those who defy gender norms persist to this day. “I can feel the eyes and hear the whispers,” Bisrat (a pseudonym to protect her identity) shared, describing the scrutiny she faces daily. Bisrat, a queer ciswoman who lives in Ethiopia, presents her gender differently from societal expectations and navigates a contemporary Ethiopia where even public bathrooms are a battleground. A simple visit often draws unwanted attention—from the waiter to the chef to the guard, all discreetly coming to get a glimpse of her.
At first glance, it may seem unusual to bring Bisrat’s experiences into a discussion about the Ashtime. However, the connection is clear. The Ashtime had a recognized space for authentic gender identities within their society—something that contemporary Ethiopia struggles to provide for anyone who questions traditional gender norms. Even someone like Bisrat, who simply presents her gender differently, faces significant challenges.
Gender Fluidity's Paradox
The Maales’ acceptance, or at least acknowledgment, of a third gender contrasts sharply with the rigid binary gender systems prevalent in many societies today. Historical accounts suggest that the Ashtime served specific ritual and societal functions within Maale society, intertwining with religious beliefs. Their existence challenges the notion of gender as a static construct, encouraging us to embrace the diversity of human experience.
However, the Ashtime also existed in part because women were considered “impure,” a concept that underscores the problematic aspects of their role. While the Ashtime were integral to the social and religious order, their existence was also tied to a system that marginalized women. This complexity reflects the dual nature of the Ashtime’s role in Maale society—both as a recognition of gender fluidity and as a product of gendered oppression.
In contemporary Ethiopia, the landscape remains challenging for those who do not conform to traditional gender norms. Homosexuality, for instance, is illegal under the Ethiopian Criminal Code Article 629, which criminalizes homosexual or indecent acts, punishable with at least one year of imprisonment. This provision targets acts between both men and women, highlighting the legal and societal hurdles that individuals like Bisrat must navigate.
Navigating Gender Expectations
Bisrat’s experience echoes the marginalization faced by the Ashtime, who, despite their integral role in Maale society, were still seen as “crooked.” Today, societal expectations often force those like Bisrat to navigate public spaces with caution, always aware of the potential for misunderstanding or hostility. Some people even give her unsolicited advice on how to be a “proper” woman—grow your hair, use a little lipstick, smile more, walk like a woman, or wear a dress—assuming she presents in a masculine manner because she doesn’t know how to be a “beautiful” woman.
In contrast to Bisrat’s lived experience, the concept of the Ashtime aligns with the contemporary understanding of gender fluidity, challenging the rigid binary of male and female. While gender fluidity is often associated with Western cultures, it is evident that indigenous societies like the Maale have long recognized and accommodated gender diversity.
It is important to note that the Ashtime were not merely individuals who adopted female roles but occupied a distinct gender category within Maale society. Their role was essential to the maintenance of social order and religious practices, demonstrating the complex ways in which gender can be constructed and performed in different cultural contexts.
Contested Interpretations
Ghanaian-Nigerian researcher Nnenna Onuoha provides a comprehensive analysis of the Ashtime, emphasizing the complexity and diversity of interpretations surrounding their identity. “Academic interpretations of the Ashtime are diverse and contested,” she notes. “While some scholars have positioned the Ashtime within a heteronormative framework, emphasizing their role in social stability, others have foregrounded their identity as a unique gender category.
The question of whether the Ashtime represents a form of homosexuality has also been debated. Early functionalist approaches argued that Ashtime practices were not homosexual but served to uphold the heterosexual social structure. However, more recent scholarship has challenged this perspective, calling for a more nuanced understanding that incorporates desire and agency.”
The Maale, like many indigenous cultures, navigated the complexities of modernity. While their traditional practices persist, they are also subject to external pressures and changing social dynamics. The status of the Ashtime within Maale society has evolved over time, and it is now nonexistent. Yet, the Maale and their long-gone concept of the Ashtime offer valuable insights into the diversity of human gender expression. And they fuel the aspirations of modern-day gender warriors such as Bisrat.
Resilience Fuels Change
Bisrat envisions a future where laws protect people based on their gender identity, creating a more accepting and inclusive society and instituting into law what the Maale seemed to organically welcome into their culture. “Developing a feminist praxis and progressive politics across the board ensures that we are committed to creating a world where we strongly oppose oppression of any sort,” she explained.
This vision includes challenging the deeply entrenched belief that gender is binary, that women are inferior, or that same-sex attractions are wrong. By shifting mindsets, she believes Ethiopian society can begin to embrace the diversity that has always existed within its borders, as exemplified by the Ashtime.
“It is crucial to highlight indigenous cultures within Ethiopia and Africa who have already challenged these norms,” she said, pointing to the Ashtime as a powerful example of gender fluidity within Ethiopian history. Through education, advocacy, and a commitment to human rights, she believes that Ethiopian society can evolve to better support individuals who challenge traditions, gender norms included.
As she stated, “Continually fighting to ensure women’s rights is mandatory since our liberation is interlinked.” Her words offer a hopeful reminder that change is possible and that the resilience of those who live authentically despite societal pressures can pave the way for a more inclusive future. This resistant spirit of queer people who constantly question the status quo is echoed in her powerful reflection: “Some of us were beaten up, some of us were imprisoned, some of us fled our country in the cover of darkness. We survived. We still survive. Not because anything is easy, but because we are resilient.”
Accept & Embrace
It is within this context of resilience and perseverance that the story of the Maale and their acknowledgment of gender diversity must be approached with respect, sensitivity, and curiosity. Had their culture been more widely recognized and valued, perhaps our understanding of gender fluidity would have evolved for the better. If contemporary Ethiopia embraced these lessons from its history, it would make it easier for people like Bisrat to live openly and safely in their homeland.
And, perhaps, if we are able to develop an openness to gender inclusivity in Ethiopia, the tour guide would speak as passionately about the the Ashtime the next time someone inquires.
Maya Pomrose is a passionate writer and LGBTQ+ ally from Ethiopia, dedicated to using the written word to amplify the voices of the marginalized and oppressed. With a deep-seated belief in equality and justice, she is committed to giving a voice to those often silenced. Through her writing, she strives to encourage understanding, empathy, and solidarity.